Environmental Science

EESC UN1001 Dinosaurs and the History of Life: Lectures and Lab. 4 points.

CC/GS: Partial Fulfillment of Science Requirement
Given in alternate years.

Prerequisites: Recommended preparation: basic high school science and math.

Lab is a hands-on introduction to geochronology, paleontology, and historical geology with field trips. (See W1401 for lectures only.) Dinosaurs: a spectacular example of a common, highly successful form of life, dominant for 135 million years. Where did they come from? Why were they so successful? Why did they die out? A basic introduction to interface between geology and biology.

EESC UN1201 Environmental Risks and Disasters. 3 points.

CC/GS: Partial Fulfillment of Science Requirement
Priority given to first-years and sophomores.

Prerequisites: high school science and math.

An introduction to risks and hazards in the environment. Different types of hazards are analyzed and compared: natural disasters, such as tornados, earthquakes, and meteorite impacts; acute and chronic health effects caused by exposure to radiation and toxic substances such as radon, asbestos, and arsenic; long-term societal effects due to environmental change, such as sea level rise and global warming. Emphasizes the basic physical principles controlling the hazardous phenomena and develops simple quantitative methods for making scientifically reasoned assessments of the threats (to health and wealth) posed by various events, processes, and exposures. Discusses methods of risk mitigation and sociological, psychological, and economic aspects of risk control and management.

EESC UN1401 Dinosaurs and the History of Life: Lectures. 3 points.

CC/GS: Partial Fulfillment of Science Requirement
Given in alternate years.

Prerequisites: Recommended preparation: basic high school science and math.

Dinosaurs: a spectacular example of a common, highly successful form of life, dominant for 135 million years. Where did they come from? Why were they so successful? Why did they die out? A basic introduction to the interface between geology and biology.

EESC UN1600 Earth Resources and Sustainable Development. 3 points.

CC/GS: Partial Fulfillment of Science Requirement

Prerequisites: none; high school chemistry recommended.

Survey of the origin and extent of mineral resources, fossil fuels, and industrial materials, that are non renewable, finite resources, and the environmental consequences of their extraction and use, using the textbook Earth Resources and the Environment, by James Craig, David Vaughan and Brian Skinner. This course will provide an overview, but will include focus on topics of current societal relevance, including estimated reserves and extraction costs for fossil fuels, geological storage of CO2, sources and disposal methods for nuclear energy fuels, sources and future for luxury goods such as gold and diamonds, and special, rare materials used in consumer electronics (e.g., “Coltan”, mostly from Congo) and in newly emerging technologies such as superconducting magnets and rechargeable batteries (e.g., heavy rare earth elements, mostly from China). Guest lectures from economists, commodity traders and resource geologists will provide “real world” input.  Discussion Session Required.

EESC UN2100 Earth's Environmental Systems: The Climate System. 4.5 points.

CC/GS: Partial Fulfillment of Science Requirement, BC: Partial Fulfillment of General Education Requirement: Laboratory Science (SCI)., BC: Fulfillment of General Education Requirement: Quantitative and Deductive Reasoning (QUA)., Lab Required
Priority given to Columbia and Barnard earth science, environmental science, and environmental biology majors should enrollment limits be reinstated.

Prerequisites: high school algebra. Recommended preparation: high school chemistry and physics; and one semester of college science.

  Origin and development of the atmosphere and oceans, formation of winds, storms and ocean currents, reasons for changes through geologic time. Recent influence of human activity: the ozone hole, global warming, water pollution. Laboratory exploration of topics through demonstrations, experimentation, computer data analysis, and modeling. Students majoring in Earth and Environmental Sciences should plan to take EESC W2100 before their senior year to avoid conflicts with Senior Seminar.

EESC UN2200 EARTH'S ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS: THE SOLID EARTH. 4.50 points.

CC/GS: Partial Fulfillment of Science Requirement
Priority given to Columbia and Barnard earth science, environmental science, and environmental biology majors should enrollment limits be necessary.

Prerequisites: high school algebra and chemistry. Recommended preparation: high school physics.
Prerequisites: high school algebra, chemistry, and physics. Exploration of how the solid Earth works, today and in the past, focusing on Earth in the Solar system, continents and oceans, the Earth's history, mountain systems on land and sea, minerals and rocks, weathering and erosion, glaciers and ice sheets, the hydrological cycle and rivers, geochronology, plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanoes, energy resources. Laboratory exploration of topics through examination of rock samples, experimentation, computer data analysis, field exercises, and modeling. Columbia and Barnard majors should plan to take W2200 before their senior year to avoid conflicts with the Senior Seminar

EESC UN2330 SCIENCE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVPT. 3 points.

CC/GS: Partial Fulfillment of Science Requirement

The course provides students with the natural science basis to appreciate co-dependencies of natural and human systems, which are central to understanding sustainable development. After completing the course, students should be able to incorporate scientific approaches into their research or policy decisions and be able to use scientific methods of data analysis. The semester will highlight the climate system and solutions from both physical and ecological perspectives; water resources; food production and the cycling of nutrients; and the role of biodiversity in sustainable development. The course emphasizes key scientific concepts such as uncertainty, experimental versus observational approaches, prediction and predictability, the use of models and other essential methodological aspects.

EESC UN3101 Geochemistry for a Habitable Planet. 3 points.

Prerequisites: Any 1000-level or 2000-level EESC course; MATH UN1101 Calculus I and CHEM UN1403 General Chemistry I or their equivalents.

The origin, evolution, and future of our planet, based on the book How to Build a Habitable Planet by Wallace S. Broecker. This course will focus on the geochemical processes that built Earth from solar material, led to its differentiation into continents and ocean, and have maintained its surface at a comfortable temperature. Students will participate in a hands-on geochemistry project at Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory.

EESC UN3400 COMPUTATIONAL EARTH SCIENCE. 3.00 points.

Prerequisites: Required: at least a semester of calculus and physics; any 1000-level or 2000-level EESC,course. Recommended: EESC3201 (Solid Earth Dynamics).
Prerequisites: Required: at least a semester of calculus and physics; any 1000-level or 2000-level EESC course. Recommended: EESC3201 (Solid Earth Dynamics). Computer models are essential for understanding the behavior of complex natural systems in geosciences. This course is an introduction to writing computer models to simulate Earth processes. Students will learn methods for numerical modeling of a variety of geoscience topics, such as geochemical diffusion, groundwater flow, glacier growth, ocean currents and more. Simulations will be created by learning to program using a modern user-friendly programming language. Student learning will be facilitated through a combination of lectures, in-class exercises, homework assignments and a final project on a student-selected topic

EESC UN3901 Environmental Science Senior Seminar. 3 points.

Prerequisites: EESC BC3800 or EESC BC3801 and a good grounding in basic sciences.

Guided, independent, in-depth research culminating in the senior thesis in the spring. Includes discussion about scientific presentations and posters, data analysis, library research methods and scientific writing. Students review work in progress and share results through oral reports. Weekly seminar to review work in progress and share results through oral and written reports.

EESC GU4008 Introduction to Atmospheric Science. 3 points.

CC/GS: Partial Fulfillment of Science Requirement

Prerequisites: advanced calculus and general physics, or the instructor's permission.

Basic physical processes controlling atmospheric structure: thermodynamics; radiation physics and radiative transfer; principles of atmospheric dynamics; cloud processes; applications to Earth's atmospheric general circulation, climatic variations, and the atmospheres of the other planets. 

EESC GU4020 HUMANS ＆ THE CARBON CYCLE. 3.00 points.

Prerequisites: One semester of college-level calculus and chemistry; Plus one semester of college-level physics or geoscience. Or instructor's permission. The accelerating climate change of the current day is driven by humanity’s modifications to the global carbon cycle. This course offers an introduction basic science of the carbon cycle, with a focus on large-scale processes occurring on annual to centennial timescales. Students will leave this course with an understanding of the degree to which the global carbon cycle is understood and quantified, as well as the key uncertainties that are the focus of current research. We will build understanding of the potential pathways, and the significant challenges, to limiting global warming to 2o C as intended by the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement. The course will begin with a brief review of climate science basics and the role of CO2 in climate and climate change (weeks 1-2). In weeks 3-4, the natural reservoirs and fluxes that make up the global carbon cycle will be introduced. In week 5-6, anthropogenic emissions and the observed changes in climate associated with increasing atmospheric CO2 will be discussed. In weeks 7-11, we will learn about how the land biosphere and ocean are mitigating the increase in atmospheric CO2 and the feedbacks that may substantially modify these natural sinks. In weeks 12-13, the international policy process and the potential for carbon cycle management will be the focus. In weeks 14, students will present their final projects

EESC GU4050 Global Assessment and Monitoring Using Remote Sensing. 3 points.

CC/GS: Partial Fulfillment of Science Requirement
Enrollment limited to 24. Priority given to graduate students in the natural sciences and engineering.

Prerequisites: Course Cap 20 students. Priority given to graduate students in the natural sciences and engineering. Advanced level undergraduates may be admitted with the instructor's permission. Calculus I and Physics I & II are required for undergraduates who wish to take this course.

General introduction to fundamentals of remote sensing; electromagnetic radiation, sensors, interpretation, quantitative image analysis and modeling. Example applications in the Earth and environmental sciences are explored through the analysis of remote sensing imagery in a state-or-the-art visualization laboratory.

EESC GU4480 Paleobiology and Earth System History. 3 points.

CC/GS: Partial Fulfillment of Science Requirement
Given in alternate years.

Prerequisites: high-school biology, introductory college-level geology.

Course is a survey of the biological and biogeochemical evolution of the Earth System. Students focus not only on a narrative of the panoply of biodiversity though time, but also on the development and the testing of evolutionary and geochemical hypotheses within a historical science. Case studies of mass extinctions and biological innovation as well as current topics and debates will be examined in detail. There are 4 full-day field trips.

EESC GU4550 Plant Ecophysiology. 3 points.

CC/GS: Partial Fulfillment of Science Requirement
Given in alternate years.

Prerequisites: General biology or the instructor's permission.

Given in alternate years. Plant organismal responses to external environmental conditions and the physiological mechanisms of plants that enable these responses. An evolutionary approach is taken to analyze the potential fitness of plants and plant survival based on adaptation to external environmental factors.  One weekend field trip will be required.

EESC GU4600 Earth Resources and Sustainable Development. 3 points.

CC/GS: Partial Fulfillment of Science Requirement

Prerequisites: none; high school chemistry recommended.

Survey of the origin and extent of mineral resources, fossil fuels, and industrial materials, that are non renewable, finite resources, and the environmental consequences of their extraction and use, using the textbook Earth Resources and the Environment, by James Craig, David Vaughan and Brian Skinner. This course will provide an overview, but will include focus on topics of current societal relevance, including estimated reserves and extraction costs for fossil fuels, geological storage of CO2, sources and disposal methods for nuclear energy fuels, sources and future for luxury goods such as gold and diamonds, and special, rare materials used in consumer electronics (e.g., “Coltan”, mostly from Congo) and in newly emerging technologies such as superconducting magnets and rechargeable batteries (e.g., heavy rare earth elements, mostly from China). Guest lectures from economists, commodity traders and resource geologists will provide “real world” input.

EESC GU4835 Wetlands and Climate Change. 3 points.

Given in alternate years. Enrollment limited to 20. Priority given to juniors and seniors.

Prerequisites: introductory biology or chemistry, or the instructor's permission.

Analysis of modern wetland dynamics and the important ecological, biogeochemical, and hydrological functions taking place in marshes, bogs, fens, and swamps, with a field emphasis. Wetlands as fossil repositories, the paleoenvironmental history they provide, and their role in the carbon cycle. Current wetland destruction, remediation attempts, and valuation. Laboratory analysis and field trips.

EESC UN2100 Earth's Environmental Systems: The Climate System. 4.5 points.

CC/GS: Partial Fulfillment of Science Requirement, BC: Partial Fulfillment of General Education Requirement: Laboratory Science (SCI)., BC: Fulfillment of General Education Requirement: Quantitative and Deductive Reasoning (QUA)., Lab Required
Priority given to Columbia and Barnard earth science, environmental science, and environmental biology majors should enrollment limits be reinstated.

Prerequisites: high school algebra. Recommended preparation: high school chemistry and physics; and one semester of college science.

  Origin and development of the atmosphere and oceans, formation of winds, storms and ocean currents, reasons for changes through geologic time. Recent influence of human activity: the ozone hole, global warming, water pollution. Laboratory exploration of topics through demonstrations, experimentation, computer data analysis, and modeling. Students majoring in Earth and Environmental Sciences should plan to take EESC W2100 before their senior year to avoid conflicts with Senior Seminar.

EESC UN2200 EARTH'S ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS: THE SOLID EARTH. 4.50 points.

CC/GS: Partial Fulfillment of Science Requirement
Priority given to Columbia and Barnard earth science, environmental science, and environmental biology majors should enrollment limits be necessary.

Prerequisites: high school algebra and chemistry. Recommended preparation: high school physics.
Prerequisites: high school algebra, chemistry, and physics. Exploration of how the solid Earth works, today and in the past, focusing on Earth in the Solar system, continents and oceans, the Earth's history, mountain systems on land and sea, minerals and rocks, weathering and erosion, glaciers and ice sheets, the hydrological cycle and rivers, geochronology, plate tectonics, earthquakes, volcanoes, energy resources. Laboratory exploration of topics through examination of rock samples, experimentation, computer data analysis, field exercises, and modeling. Columbia and Barnard majors should plan to take W2200 before their senior year to avoid conflicts with the Senior Seminar

EESC UN2300 Earth's Environmental Systems: The Life System. 4.5 points.

CC/GS: Partial Fulfillment of Science Requirement
Priority given to Columbia and Barnard earth science, environmental science, and environmental biology majors should enrollment limits be reinstated.

Prerequisites: high school algebra. Recommended preparation: high school chemistry and physics.

Role of life in biogeochemical cycles, relationship of biodiversity and evolution to the physical Earth, vulnerability of ecosystems to environmental change; causes and effects of extinctions through geologic time (dinosaurs and mammoths) and today. Exploration of topics through laboratories, demonstrations, computer data analysis and modeling. REQUIRED LAB: EESC UN2310. Students should see the Directory of Classes for lab sessions being offered and select one.

Co-meets with EEEB 2002

EESC UN2310 Earth's Environmental Systems: The Life System Required Lab: Sections 001, 002, 003, 004,005. 0 points.

This three hour lab is required of all students who enroll in EESC UN2300. There are currently five lab sections.

EESC UN3010 Field Geology. 3 points.

Fee: to be determined.

The centerpiece of this course is a field trip that will take place during Spring Break in Barbados. During the term-time the class will meet before the trip to prepare for it and after the trip to synthesize what was learned and to create a field guide. Subjects to be covered: Plate tectonics / convergent plate margins and accretionary prisms / Barbados geology; ice ages / Milankovitch cycles / sea level; introduction to coral reefs and fossil coral reef geology; Barbados terrestrial ecology; limestone caves / hydrology; dating methods; overview of Barbados history, economy, culture. In order to observe the modern day coral reef (the modern day live analog to the fossil coral reefs) the class will go snorkeling. In order to observe the effects of cave formation and water flow in limestone terrains the class will visit a cave. The class will also participate in an exercise in geological mapping of a series of coral reef terraces.

Priority is given to junior and senior majors and concentrators in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Columbia College and the School of General Studies, and Barnard Environmental Science majors and minors. Barnard students must receive permission from the Barnard Environmental Science department chair in order to receive the subsidy. All others require the instructor's permission. Interested sophomores planning to major or concentrate in Earth Sciences or Environmental Sciences are encouraged to contact the instructor. By necessity (number of van seats) the course is limited to 20 or 21 students.

EESC UN3201 Solid Earth Dynamics. 3 points.

Prerequisites: any 1000-level or 2000-level EESC course; MATH UN1101 Calculus I and PHYS UN1201 General Physics I or their equivalents. Concurrent enrollment in PHYS UN1201 is acceptable with the instructor's permission.

Properties and processes affecting the evolution and behavior of the solid Earth. This course will focus on the geophysical processes that build mountains and ocean basins, drive plate tectonics, and otherwise lead to a dynamic planet. Topics include heat flow and mantle circulation, earthquakes and seismic waves, gravity, Earth's magnetic field, and flow of glaciers and ice sheets.

EESC UN3328 Glacial Geomorphology. 3.00 points.

This course focuses on the impact of glaciers on landscapes. We will learn about the interactions and feedbacks between landscapes and climate. We will cover what is known about glacial geomorphology, as well as the modern research methods and outstanding scientific problems

EESC UN3901 Environmental Science Senior Seminar. 3 points.

Prerequisites: EESC BC3800 or EESC BC3801 and a good grounding in basic sciences.

Guided, independent, in-depth research culminating in the senior thesis in the spring. Includes discussion about scientific presentations and posters, data analysis, library research methods and scientific writing. Students review work in progress and share results through oral reports. Weekly seminar to review work in progress and share results through oral and written reports.

EESC GU4040 CLIM THERMODYN/ENERGY TRANSFER. 3.00 points.

Given in alternate years.

Prerequisites: EESC GU4008, advanced calculus, and general physics, or the instructor's permission.
Thermodynamics of atmospheric and oceanic processes fundamental to the climate system. Physical mechanisms of vertical energy transfer: surface fluxes, boundary layers and convection

EESC GU4085 GEODYNAMICS. 3.00 points.

CC/GS: Partial Fulfillment of Science Requirement
Given in alternate years.

Prerequisites: calculus, differential equations, introductory physics.
An introduction to how the Earth and planets work. The focus is on physical processes that control plate tectonics and the evolution of planetary interiors and surfaces; analytical descriptions of these processes; weekly physical model demonstrations

EESC GU4113 INTRODUCTION TO MINERALOGY I. 4.00 points.

Prerequisites: introductory geology or the equivalent, elementary college physics and chemistry, or the instructor's permission.
Prerequisites: introductory geology or the equivalent, elementary college physics and chemistry, or the instructors permission. Minerals come in dazzling colors, amazing shapes and with interesting optical effects. But mineralogy is also an essential tool for the understanding of Earth evolution. Minerals represent fundamental building blocks of the Earth system and planetary bodies. Minerals form through geological and biological processes such as igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary from high to low temperatures, from the deep interior to the Earth’s surface and related to volcanism, tectonics, weathering, climate and life. Minerals are one of our most important sources of information on such processes through Earth’s history. Minerals also represent important natural resources and are fundamental to the global economy and modern technology as we know it. The goal of this class is to (1) understand the physical and chemical properties of minerals, (2) learn techniques of mineral identification with an emphasis on optical mineralogy, (3) understand the relationship between minerals and the broader geological context

EESC GU4210 Geophysical Fluid Dynamics. 3 points.

Required course for M.A./Ph.D. candidates focusing in physical oceanography and atmospheric sciences. Elective for undergraduate majors in the Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences.

Prerequisites: APMA E3101, APMA E3201 or equivalents and APPH E4200 or equivalent or the instructor's permission.

Fundamental concepts in the dynamics of rotating stratified flows. Geostrophic and hydrostatic balances, potential vorticity, f and beta plane approximations, gravity and Rossby waves, geostrophic adjustment and quasigeostrophy, baroclinic and barotropic instabilities.

EESC GU4220 Glaciology. 3 points.

Prerequisites: At least a year of calculus and physics; any 1000-level or 2000-level EESC course. Recommended: EESC2100 (Climate System), EESC2200 (Solid Earth), EESC3201 (Solid Earth Dynamics). Experience using MATLAB.

This course examines processes controlling how glaciers and ice sheets grow, retreat, modify their landscape and interact with the rest of the Earth system. We focus on what controls surface mass balance, the transformation from snow to ice, ice deformation, basal sliding, the temperature and age of ice, the flow of water through ice sheets and glaciers, and the two-way interactions between ice and the oceans, atmosphere and solid earth. Weekly lectures are accompanied by practical computer sessions that equip students with key numerical and data analysis skills used in research of glacial processes.

EESC GU4223 SEDIMENTARY GEOLOGY. 4.00 points.

CC/GS: Partial Fulfillment of Science Requirement
Given in alternate years.

Prerequisites: EESC UN2200 or equivalent introductory geology course approved by the instructor.
Two required weekend field trips: February 27 to Fire Island, and March 12-14 to the Hudson Valley. An overview of sedimentology and stratigraphy for majors and concentrators in Earth and environmental sciences, and for graduate students from other disciplines. Lectures/class discussions, labs, and field exercises are integrated, with emphasis on processes, the characteristics of sediments and sedimentary rocks, interpretation of the geological record, and practical applications. Lab required

EESC GU4235 Sea level change. 3 points.

Prerequisites: At least a year of calculus and physics; any 1000-level or 2000-level EESC course; basic,programming experience (e.g. EESC3400 - Introduction to Computational Earth Science).,Recommended: EESC2100 (Climate System), EESC2200 (Solid Earth), EESC3201 (Solid Earth,Dynamics).
The course aims to explore sea level changes that take place over a wide variety of timescales and are the result of multiple solid Earth and climatic processes. The course will link a series of solid Earth processes such as mantle convection, viscoelastic deformation, and plate tectonics to the paleoclimate record and investigate how these processes contribute to our understanding of past and present changes in sea level and climate. The course will step chronologically through time starting with long term sea level changes over the Phanerozoic, followed by Plio-Pleistocene ice age sea level variations and lastly modern and future sea level change. This is a cross-disciplinary course, which is aimed at students with interests in geophysics, cryosphere evolution, ocean dynamics, sedimentology, paleogeography, and past and present climate

EESC GU4524 Biogeochemistry. 3.00 points.

Biogeochemistry considers how the basic chemical conditions of the Earth, from atmosphere to soil to seawater, have been and are being affected by the existence of life. Human activities in particular, from the rapid consumption of resources to the destruction of the rainforests and the expansion of smog-covered cities, are leading to rapid changes in the basic chemistry of the Earth. This course will examine biogeochemical processes in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems in Earth’s Biosphere. We will cover the historical development and evolution of biogeochemical cycles and compare past biogeochemical systems on the planet to contemporary and future eco-biogeochemical systems that are increasingly perturbed and dominated by human activity

EESC GU4923 Biological Oceanography. 3 points.

CC/GS: Partial Fulfillment of Science Requirement
Given in alternate years. Enrollment limited to 24. Priority given to graduate students and then graduating seniors.

Prerequisites: introductory college-level biology and chemistry.

An overview of the biology and ecology of the oceans with a focus on the interaction between marine organisms and the physics and chemistry of the oceans.

EESC GU4924 Introduction to Atmospheric Chemistry. 3 points.

CC/GS: Partial Fulfillment of Science Requirement

Prerequisites: Physics UN1201, CHEM UN1403, & MATH UN1201 (Calc III), or their equivalents. Recommended: EESC UN2100 or EESC GU4008.

Physical and chemical processes determining atmospheric composition and the implications for climate and regional air pollution. Atmospheric evolution and human influence; basics of greenhouse effect, photolysis, reaction kinetics, atmospheric transport of trace species; stratospheric ozone chemistry; tropospheric hydrocarbon chemistry; oxidizing power; nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur cycles; chemistry-climate-biosphere interactions; aerosols, smog, acid rain.

EESC GU4926 Principles of Chemical Oceanography. 3 points.

Given in alternate years.

Prerequisites: Recommended preparation: one year of chemistry.

Factors controlling the concentration and distribution of dissolved chemical species within the sea. The physical chemistry of seawater, ocean circulation and mixing, gas exchange and biogeochemical processes interact to influence the distribution and fate of elements in the ocean.  The course examines in some detail the two-way interaction between marine ecosystems and their chemical environment, and the implications of these interactions for distributions in the ocean of carbon, nutrients and trace metals.

EESC GU4930 Earth's Oceans and Atmosphere. 3 points.

Prerequisites: Recommended preparation: a good background in the physical sciences.

Physical properties of water and air. Overview of the stratification and circulation of Earth's ocean and atmosphere and their governing processes; ocean-atmosphere interaction; resultant climate system; natural and anthropogenic forced climate change.

EESC GU4937 Cenozoic Paleoceanography. 3 points.

Given in alternate years. Enrollment limited to 20 students EESC (DEES) graduate students have priority..

Prerequisites: college-level geology helpful but not required.

Introduces the physical, chemical and biological processes that govern how and where ocean sediments accumulate. Major topics addressed are: modes of biogenic, terrigenous and authigenic sedimentation, depositional environments, pore fluids and sediment geochemistry, diagenesis, as well as biostratigraphy and sediment stratigraphic principles and methods. Second half of the semester focuses on major events in Cenozoic paleoceanogrpahy and paleoclimatology including orbital control of climate, long-term carbon cycle, extreme climate regimes, causes of ice ages in Earth's history, human evolution, El Niño evolution, and long-term sea level history.